The importance of social interaction and relationships as a key function of spoken discourse should be clear. Crucial to social interaction is the establishment and maintenance of social relationships. For social relations to function smoothly, politeness is a fundamental consideration in any interaction. Brown and Levinson (1987) provide one of the best known accounts of politeness based on studies of politeness in a wide range of cultures and languages. For Brown and Levinson the origins of politeness in all societies reside in the notion of face. The term face was taken from the work of the sociologist Erving Goffman (1967). However, it is roughly analogous to the English expressions 'to save face' and 'to lose face' relating to individual's self esteem and respect in relation to others.
In these activities you will examine the concept of face and the associated ideas of positive and negative face, face threatening acts and strategies for doing face threatening acts.
Activity 1: Positive and negative face
All adult members of a society have 'face' and this face is seen by Brown and Levinson to be divided into two types - positive face and negative face. This activity is going to introduce you to the two types of face.
Instruction
Consider the two explanations below and select the type of face that each refers to. Then read the feedback.
"The want of every 'competent adult member' that his actions be unimpeded by others" (Brown and Levinson, 1987). This involves such areas as avoiding imposing on others, wanting to complete actions without interference from others, expressing deference to others and expecting respect from others.
"The want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some others" (Brown and Levinson, 1987). This involves such areas as wanting to be liked, wanting others to like the same things as you like, agreeing with others, eexpressing solidarity and equality with others.
"The want of every 'competent adult member' that his actions be unimpeded by others" (Brown and Levinson, 1987). This involves such areas as avoiding imposing on others, wanting to complete actions without interference from others, expressing deference to others and expecting respect from others. Negative face
"The want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some others" (Brown and Levinson, 1987). This involves such areas as wanting to be liked, wanting others to like the same things as you like, agreeing with others, expressing solidarity and equality with others. Positive face
As with any such categorisation there are of course areas of overlap between positive and negative face. 'Rational' people generally cooperate to preserve their own and other people's 'face'. Brown and Levinson believe that while the content or details of face will be different in different cultures, all cultures' ideas of politeness are based on face and the preservation of face. You may want to consider how much you agree with this claim.
It is also important to realise that face and politeness may, as suggested in previous topics, result in violating or flouting the conversational principles, for example when a truthful utterance may be considered impolite or 'face threatening'.
The next activity will address social acts which necessarily threaten face.
Activity 2: Face threatening acts (FTAs)
When we interact with other people many of our normal actions are potentially face threatening acts (FTAs). That is, they could potentially undermine the positive or negative face of the speaker, the hearer or both. For example, if I ask to borrow your pen I am potentially imposing on you and so threatening your negative face. Conversely, if I apologise to you I will be threatening my own positive face, in that I am acknowledging having imposed on you and asking for your acceptance of this (which you may reject). Brown and Levinson produced a list of possible acts that may threaten either positive or negative face and in this activity you are going to consider these.
Instruction
Examine this list of actions and decide if they threaten positive or negative face. Move them into the correct box and then read the feedback.
Acts that threaten the addressee's negative face
Acts that threaten the addressee's positive face
Contradictions or disagreements
Expressions of disapproval, criticism or complaint
Expressions of violent emotions
Irreverence or expression of taboo topics
Non-cooperation in an activity
Offers (suggesting a future debt the addressee must accept or reject)
Orders and requests
Promises (suggesting a future debt the addressee must accept or reject)
Reminding
Suggestions, advice
Threats, warnings, dares
Use of inappropriate terms of address (deliberately or accidentally)
Acts that threaten the addressee's negative face: Offers (suggesting a future debt the addressee must accept or reject) Orders and requests Promises (suggesting a future debt the addressee must accept or reject) Reminding Suggestions, advice Threats, warnings, dares
Acts that threaten the addressee's positive face: Contradictions or disagreements Expressions of disapproval, criticism or complaint Expressions of violent emotions Irreverence or expression of taboo topics Non-cooperation in an activity Use of inappropriate terms of address (deliberately or accidentally)
Brown and Levinson also identity acts that may threaten the speaker's negative face such as expressing thanks, excuses and acceptance of offers, and acts that may threaten the speakers positive face such as apologies, acceptance of compliments and becoming 'over' emotional.
Activity 3: Strategies and FTAs
Brown and Levinson believe that participants in social interaction will try to avoid or minimise the impact of any face threatening acts, and they offer a schema of possible strategies for FTAs to achieve this. In this activity you are going to examine this schema.
Instruction
Open and read the FTA schema, study the scenario below and the different possible actions. Match each possible action with the FTA strategy that it reflects and then read the feedback.
You are at a bus stop waiting for your bus to go home when you discover that you have no money. You can:
You are at a bus stop waiting for your bus to go home when you discover that you have no money. You can: Decide to ask for money - Do the FTA Say 'Be a pal, and lend me something till tomorrow.' - On record, with redressive action, positive politeness Say 'Give me some money!' - On record, without redressive action, baldly Say 'I'm sorry to trouble you, but could I possibly borrow some money until tomorrow?' - On record, with redressive action, negative politeness Say 'Oh no, I'm out of cash, I forgot to go to the bank today.' - Off record Walk home - Don't do the FTA
Brown and Levinson suggest that in being indirect through negative politeness strategies there is a tension between the desire to go on the record with the speaker's intention (in this case borrowing the money for the bus fare) and the desire to go off the record so as not to impose on the addressee (giving the addressee the option of refusing). However, when indirect strategies become fully conventionalised they become 'on the record'.
